Preamble
This is the eighty-first post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory Of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Pleating
Pleating is really a variation of embossing. It is an ancient art that dates back to the Egyptians, who used hot stones to make pleats.
Ancient Egyptian Pleats.
Colonial women in the United States used heavy pleating irons to press in fancy pleats and fluting. Today pleating methods are highly specialised operations done by either the paper pattern technique or by machine processes.
Box pleats on the back of a frock coat.
The paper pattern method is a hand process and, therefore, more costly; but it produces a wider variety of pleated designs. Garments in partly completed condition, such as hemmed skirt panels, are placed in a pleated paper pattern fold. The fabric is placed in the paper fold by hand and another pattern fold is placed on top so that the fabric is pleated between the two pleated papers. The whole thing is rolled into a cone shape, sealed, and put in a large curing oven for heat setting.
Fabric Manipulation - cardboard pleating mold; textile design techniques for pleated patterns & textures.
The machine pleating method is less expensive. The machine has two heated rolls. The fabric is inserted between the rolls as high precision blades put the pleats in place. A paper backing is used under the pleated fabric and the pleats are held in place by a paper tape. After leaving the heated roll machine, the pleats are set in an ageing unit. Durability of pleats differs in the eyes of the producer and the consumer. If the pleat line is still evident after wear or washing, the producer considers this permanent and satisfactory. The consumer, however, is interested in having the pleats hang perfectly flat as if they had just been pressed. Permanence depends on the fiber content.
Rotary Pleating Machine.
Beetling
Beetling is a finish that is used for linen and a few fabrics resembling linen. As the cloth revolves slowly over a huge wooden drum, it is pounded with wooden block hammers. This pounding may continue for a period of 30 to 60 hours. It flattens the yarns and makes the weave appear less open than it really is. The increased surface area gives more luster, greater absorbency, and smoothness to the fabric.
Irish beetled linen - Pewter.
Decatizing
Decatizing produces a smooth, wrinkle-free finish and lofty hand on woolen and worsted fabrics and on blends of wool and man-made fibers. The process is comparable to steam ironing. A high degree of luster can be developed by the decatizing process because of the smoothness of the surface. The dry cloth is wound under tension on a perforated cylinder. Steam is forced through the fabric. The moisture and heat cause the wool to become plastic and tensions relax and wrinkles are removed. The yarns become set in the shape of the weave and are fixed in this position by cooling off, which is done with cold air. For a more permanent set, dry decatizing is done in a pressure boiler.
Decating process.
Wet decatizing often precedes napping or other face finishes to remove wrinkles that have been acquired in scouring. Wet decatizing as a final finish gives a more permanent set to the yarns than does dry decatizing.
Tentering
Tentering, one of the final finishing operations, performs the double process of straightening and drying fabrics. If the fabric is started in the tenter frame in a crooked position, it will be dried in an "off grain" shape. The crosswise grain or threads are on the diagonal or pulled into a curved shape rather than being at right angles to the yarns in the lengthwise direction. Today many fabrics are either heat-set synthetic fibers or have a durable press finish, so that it is impossible to straighten them. Heat setting of man-made fiber fabrics is often combined with tentering.
Tentering process.
The use of electronic monitors on the tenter frame will control the speed of the two sides of the tenter and keep the filling yarns at right angles to the lengthwise yarns. These straightening devices are called "weft straighteners".
Tenter machines are similar to a curtain stretcher in principle. They are of two types; the pin tenter and the clip tenter. The diagram below shows the difference between them. The pin device on the sides moves around like a caterpillar tractor wheel. The clip tenter operates in the same way except that the fabric is gripped by a series of clips. More tension can be exerted by the clip tenter, but it may also damage some fabrics, in which case the pin tenter is used. The marks of the pins or the clips are often evident along the selvage.
Tenter-dryers.
Loop Dryer
Fabrics with a soft finish, towels and stretchy fabrics such as knits, are not dried on the tenter frame, but are dried on a loop dryer, where drying can be done without tension. Many rayon fabrics are dried on loop dryers.
Loop dryer.
Shearing
Shearing is a finishing process done by a machine similar to a lawn mower. Grey goods fabrics are sheared to remove loose fiber or yarn ends, knots etc. Napped and pile fabrics are sheared to control the length of the pile or nap surface and to create a design or smooth surface. Sculptured effects are made by flattening portions of the pile with an engraved roller and then shearing off the areas that are still erect. Steaming the fabric raises the flattened portions. Straightline designs in either the warp or filling directions diagonally on the cloth are made by lifting the cutter blade at regular predetermined intervals.
Fabric shearing machine.
Brushing
Brushing follows shearing to clean the surface of clear-face fabrics. When combined with steaming, it will lay the nap or pile in one direction and fix it in that position thus giving the "up-and-down" direction of pile and nap fabrics.
Fabric brushing machine.
Inspecting
Fabrics are inspected by pulling or running them over an inverted frame in good light. Broken threads are clipped off, snagged threads are worked back into the cloth, and defects are marked so that adjustments can be made when fabrics are sold. The fabric is then wound on bolts or cylinders ready for shipment.
Reference:
[1] N. Hollen and J. Saddler, Textiles, 3rd Edition, MacMillan Company, London (1968).
This is the eighty-first post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory Of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Pleating
Pleating is really a variation of embossing. It is an ancient art that dates back to the Egyptians, who used hot stones to make pleats.
Colonial women in the United States used heavy pleating irons to press in fancy pleats and fluting. Today pleating methods are highly specialised operations done by either the paper pattern technique or by machine processes.
The paper pattern method is a hand process and, therefore, more costly; but it produces a wider variety of pleated designs. Garments in partly completed condition, such as hemmed skirt panels, are placed in a pleated paper pattern fold. The fabric is placed in the paper fold by hand and another pattern fold is placed on top so that the fabric is pleated between the two pleated papers. The whole thing is rolled into a cone shape, sealed, and put in a large curing oven for heat setting.
The machine pleating method is less expensive. The machine has two heated rolls. The fabric is inserted between the rolls as high precision blades put the pleats in place. A paper backing is used under the pleated fabric and the pleats are held in place by a paper tape. After leaving the heated roll machine, the pleats are set in an ageing unit. Durability of pleats differs in the eyes of the producer and the consumer. If the pleat line is still evident after wear or washing, the producer considers this permanent and satisfactory. The consumer, however, is interested in having the pleats hang perfectly flat as if they had just been pressed. Permanence depends on the fiber content.
Beetling
Beetling is a finish that is used for linen and a few fabrics resembling linen. As the cloth revolves slowly over a huge wooden drum, it is pounded with wooden block hammers. This pounding may continue for a period of 30 to 60 hours. It flattens the yarns and makes the weave appear less open than it really is. The increased surface area gives more luster, greater absorbency, and smoothness to the fabric.
Decatizing
Decatizing produces a smooth, wrinkle-free finish and lofty hand on woolen and worsted fabrics and on blends of wool and man-made fibers. The process is comparable to steam ironing. A high degree of luster can be developed by the decatizing process because of the smoothness of the surface. The dry cloth is wound under tension on a perforated cylinder. Steam is forced through the fabric. The moisture and heat cause the wool to become plastic and tensions relax and wrinkles are removed. The yarns become set in the shape of the weave and are fixed in this position by cooling off, which is done with cold air. For a more permanent set, dry decatizing is done in a pressure boiler.
Wet decatizing often precedes napping or other face finishes to remove wrinkles that have been acquired in scouring. Wet decatizing as a final finish gives a more permanent set to the yarns than does dry decatizing.
Tentering
Tentering, one of the final finishing operations, performs the double process of straightening and drying fabrics. If the fabric is started in the tenter frame in a crooked position, it will be dried in an "off grain" shape. The crosswise grain or threads are on the diagonal or pulled into a curved shape rather than being at right angles to the yarns in the lengthwise direction. Today many fabrics are either heat-set synthetic fibers or have a durable press finish, so that it is impossible to straighten them. Heat setting of man-made fiber fabrics is often combined with tentering.
The use of electronic monitors on the tenter frame will control the speed of the two sides of the tenter and keep the filling yarns at right angles to the lengthwise yarns. These straightening devices are called "weft straighteners".
Tenter machines are similar to a curtain stretcher in principle. They are of two types; the pin tenter and the clip tenter. The diagram below shows the difference between them. The pin device on the sides moves around like a caterpillar tractor wheel. The clip tenter operates in the same way except that the fabric is gripped by a series of clips. More tension can be exerted by the clip tenter, but it may also damage some fabrics, in which case the pin tenter is used. The marks of the pins or the clips are often evident along the selvage.
Loop Dryer
Fabrics with a soft finish, towels and stretchy fabrics such as knits, are not dried on the tenter frame, but are dried on a loop dryer, where drying can be done without tension. Many rayon fabrics are dried on loop dryers.
Shearing
Shearing is a finishing process done by a machine similar to a lawn mower. Grey goods fabrics are sheared to remove loose fiber or yarn ends, knots etc. Napped and pile fabrics are sheared to control the length of the pile or nap surface and to create a design or smooth surface. Sculptured effects are made by flattening portions of the pile with an engraved roller and then shearing off the areas that are still erect. Steaming the fabric raises the flattened portions. Straightline designs in either the warp or filling directions diagonally on the cloth are made by lifting the cutter blade at regular predetermined intervals.
Brushing
Brushing follows shearing to clean the surface of clear-face fabrics. When combined with steaming, it will lay the nap or pile in one direction and fix it in that position thus giving the "up-and-down" direction of pile and nap fabrics.
Inspecting
Fabrics are inspected by pulling or running them over an inverted frame in good light. Broken threads are clipped off, snagged threads are worked back into the cloth, and defects are marked so that adjustments can be made when fabrics are sold. The fabric is then wound on bolts or cylinders ready for shipment.
Reference:
[1] N. Hollen and J. Saddler, Textiles, 3rd Edition, MacMillan Company, London (1968).
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