Preamble
This is the eightieth post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory Of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Mechanical Finishes - Part 1
Calendering
Calendering is a mechanical finishing operation performed by a "stack" of rollers through which the cloth passes. There are several types: the simple calender, the friction calender, the moist calender, the Schreiner calender and the embossing calender. Each produces a different finish.
Most calender machines have three rollers. (Others have two, five or seven.) Hard metal rollers alternate with softer cloth wrapped rollers or with solid paper rollers. Two metal rollers never run against each other.
Seven roller Glazing calender.
The simple calender corresponds to the household iron and gives a smoothed ironed finish to the fabric. The cloth is slightly damp before it enters the calender. The metal roller is heated. The cloth travels through the calender at the surface speed of the rollers so the rollers simply exert pressure to smooth out the wrinkles and give a slight sheen.
The friction calender is used to give a highly glazed surface to the cloth. If the fabric is first saturated with starch and waxes, the finish is only temporary; but if resin finishes are used, the glaze will be durable.
The cloth is first passed through the finishing solution and then dried to a certain degree of dryness. It is then threaded into the calender. The speed of the metal roller is greater than the speed of the cloth and the roller polishes the fabric. If the metal roll is hot, a higher glaze is obtained.
The moiré calender has been used for more than 250 years to produce a "water-marked" design on ribbed silk and wool fabrics. When acetate became available, it was possible to have a permanent moiré pattern.
Moiré process on fabrics.
True moiré is applied to ribbed fabrics such as taffeta and faille. The rib is essential in producing the pattern since the rollers of the calender are smooth. An embossed moiré design is made on the calender with an engraved roller.
1865 American green taffeta with minute woven lozenge figure and warp printed moiré fern and flower design in black, lower edge of bodice and peplum trimmed with black silk bobbin lace; tulle ruffles on sleeves; skirt longer in back.
The true moiré is made by placing two layers of ribbed fabric, one on top of the other, so the ribs of the top layer are slightly "off-grain" in relation to the under layer. The two layers are stitched or held together along the selvage and are then fed into the smooth, heated, metal roller calender. Pressure of eight to ten tons causes the rib pattern of the top layer to be pressed into the bottom layer and vice versa. Flattened areas in the ribs reflect more light and create a contrast to the unflattened areas. This procedure can be modified to produce patterned moiré designs other than the water marked one.
Moire (Skirt) Dress.
The Schreiner calender has a metal roller engraved with 200 ti 300 fine diagonal lines visible only under a hand lens. (The lines should not be confused with yarn twist.) Until the advent of the resins and the thermoplastic fibers, this finish was temporary and was removed by the first washing. The primary purpose of this finish is to produce a deep seated luster, rather than a shine, by breaking up of reflected light rays. It also flattens the yarn to reduce the openness between them, and give smoothness and cover.
The arrangement of rollers in a two-bowl Schreiner calender.
It can upgrade a sleazy material. This finish was originally used with cotton sateen and table damask to make them more lustrous and more scalable. It was later used on polished resinated cottons and sateens as a durable finish. In 1957, it was first used to produce the Satinette finish on nylon and polyester tricot jersey. It has upgraded tricot and aroused interest in its use for the following reasons: the Satinette finish is permanent in laundry, thin fabrics are more opaque, smoothness gives a better base for printing color on the fabric. There is less tendency for tricot garments to sag at the hemline.
The diagram below shows a Schreiner calender for tricot fabrics. To avoid stretching the knit construction, the fabric is delivered to the calender in a tensionless state.
Schreiner calender machine for tricot.
The embossing calender produces either flat or raised designs on the fabric. Embossing became a much more important finish after the heat-sensitive fibers were developed because it was possible to produce a durable, washable, embossed pattern. Nylon, acrylics, acetate, polyesters, and fabrics made of nylon and metallic yarns are used. If the fabrics are made of solution-dyed fibers, they can be embossed directly off the loom and are then ready for sale. Mossed satins are used in high-style garments and can be sold for a much higher price than the unembossed fabric.
The embossing calender consists of two rollers, one of which is a hollow engraved metal roller heated from the inside by a gas flame. The other is a solid paper roller exactly twice the size of the engraved roller.
Embossing rollers.
The process differs for the production of flat and raised designs.
1. Flat designs are the simplest to produce. A copper roller, engraved in deep relief, revolves against a smooth paper roller. (See diagram above). The hot engraved areas of the roller produce a glazed pattern on the fabric. Embossed brocades are an example of this type of design.
2. Raised or relief designs require a more complicated routine. The paper roller is soaked in water and then revolved against the steel engraved roller (without fabric) until the pattern of engraving is pressed into the paper roller. The temperature is adjusted to suit the fabric, which is then passed between the rollser.
Reference:
[1] N. Hollen and J. Saddler, Textiles, 3rd Edition, MacMillan Company, London (1968).
This is the eightieth post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory Of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Mechanical Finishes - Part 1
Calendering
Calendering is a mechanical finishing operation performed by a "stack" of rollers through which the cloth passes. There are several types: the simple calender, the friction calender, the moist calender, the Schreiner calender and the embossing calender. Each produces a different finish.
Most calender machines have three rollers. (Others have two, five or seven.) Hard metal rollers alternate with softer cloth wrapped rollers or with solid paper rollers. Two metal rollers never run against each other.
The simple calender corresponds to the household iron and gives a smoothed ironed finish to the fabric. The cloth is slightly damp before it enters the calender. The metal roller is heated. The cloth travels through the calender at the surface speed of the rollers so the rollers simply exert pressure to smooth out the wrinkles and give a slight sheen.
The friction calender is used to give a highly glazed surface to the cloth. If the fabric is first saturated with starch and waxes, the finish is only temporary; but if resin finishes are used, the glaze will be durable.
The cloth is first passed through the finishing solution and then dried to a certain degree of dryness. It is then threaded into the calender. The speed of the metal roller is greater than the speed of the cloth and the roller polishes the fabric. If the metal roll is hot, a higher glaze is obtained.
The moiré calender has been used for more than 250 years to produce a "water-marked" design on ribbed silk and wool fabrics. When acetate became available, it was possible to have a permanent moiré pattern.
True moiré is applied to ribbed fabrics such as taffeta and faille. The rib is essential in producing the pattern since the rollers of the calender are smooth. An embossed moiré design is made on the calender with an engraved roller.
The true moiré is made by placing two layers of ribbed fabric, one on top of the other, so the ribs of the top layer are slightly "off-grain" in relation to the under layer. The two layers are stitched or held together along the selvage and are then fed into the smooth, heated, metal roller calender. Pressure of eight to ten tons causes the rib pattern of the top layer to be pressed into the bottom layer and vice versa. Flattened areas in the ribs reflect more light and create a contrast to the unflattened areas. This procedure can be modified to produce patterned moiré designs other than the water marked one.
The Schreiner calender has a metal roller engraved with 200 ti 300 fine diagonal lines visible only under a hand lens. (The lines should not be confused with yarn twist.) Until the advent of the resins and the thermoplastic fibers, this finish was temporary and was removed by the first washing. The primary purpose of this finish is to produce a deep seated luster, rather than a shine, by breaking up of reflected light rays. It also flattens the yarn to reduce the openness between them, and give smoothness and cover.
It can upgrade a sleazy material. This finish was originally used with cotton sateen and table damask to make them more lustrous and more scalable. It was later used on polished resinated cottons and sateens as a durable finish. In 1957, it was first used to produce the Satinette finish on nylon and polyester tricot jersey. It has upgraded tricot and aroused interest in its use for the following reasons: the Satinette finish is permanent in laundry, thin fabrics are more opaque, smoothness gives a better base for printing color on the fabric. There is less tendency for tricot garments to sag at the hemline.
The diagram below shows a Schreiner calender for tricot fabrics. To avoid stretching the knit construction, the fabric is delivered to the calender in a tensionless state.
The embossing calender produces either flat or raised designs on the fabric. Embossing became a much more important finish after the heat-sensitive fibers were developed because it was possible to produce a durable, washable, embossed pattern. Nylon, acrylics, acetate, polyesters, and fabrics made of nylon and metallic yarns are used. If the fabrics are made of solution-dyed fibers, they can be embossed directly off the loom and are then ready for sale. Mossed satins are used in high-style garments and can be sold for a much higher price than the unembossed fabric.
The embossing calender consists of two rollers, one of which is a hollow engraved metal roller heated from the inside by a gas flame. The other is a solid paper roller exactly twice the size of the engraved roller.
The process differs for the production of flat and raised designs.
1. Flat designs are the simplest to produce. A copper roller, engraved in deep relief, revolves against a smooth paper roller. (See diagram above). The hot engraved areas of the roller produce a glazed pattern on the fabric. Embossed brocades are an example of this type of design.
2. Raised or relief designs require a more complicated routine. The paper roller is soaked in water and then revolved against the steel engraved roller (without fabric) until the pattern of engraving is pressed into the paper roller. The temperature is adjusted to suit the fabric, which is then passed between the rollser.
Reference:
[1] N. Hollen and J. Saddler, Textiles, 3rd Edition, MacMillan Company, London (1968).
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