Preamble
This is the eighty-ninth post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory Of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Introduction
We have covered an array of different finishes from mechanical to pleating to beetling to decatizing to tendering to shearing etc. We have also covered additive and chemical finishes. Today's post will concentrate on: antiseptic finishes, anti-shrink treatments for wool, soil-retardant finishes; soil release finishes; insulating finishes; anti-static finishes.
It is interesting to note that sizing and chemicals make up 4% of the overall cost of fabrics to the consumer (see below).
Other Finishes
Antiseptic Finishes
Antiseptic finishes are used to inhibit the growth of bacteria and other odor-causing germs and to prevent the decay and damage from perspiration.
It happens to most of us — those unsightly underarm and collar stains from perspiration.
These finishes are important in skin-contact clothing, shoe linings and especially hospital linens. The chemicals used are surface reactants, mostly quaternary ammonia compounds. Those substances can be added to the spinning solution of rayon and acetate fibers. Most diaper service establishments add the finish during laundering.
Anti-Shrink Treatments
(a) Labelling
Many labels state that a garment is preshrunk, but this term is of little value. What you need to know is how much more it will shrink. Less than 1% residual or remaining shrinkage will not have any noticeable effect on size, but more than 2% can affect the comfort and fit of the garment.
Effect of Resin Finishes
Some fabrics which have resin finishes added for improved crease resistance and water repellency will hold their original shape as long as the resin finish is intact. Improper washing (too much heat and too long agitation) may remove it and then you may find that a dress has become too small "all of a sudden". Anyway, that is the excuse you can use to forgive your additional weight!
(b) Wool
Shrink-resistant wool textile materials can be obtained by:
(i) Modifying the wool fiber surface by partial dissolution of the epithelial cells (scales);
(ii) Coating the wool fiber with a film of resin to mask the epithelial cells.
Both treatments have the same effect; namely, the reduction of the directional friction effect (DFE) caused by scales and responsible for the felting of wool fibers. In reducing the DFE, fiber migration in a root ward direction is minimised when agitation of the wool textile material occurs, as during normal laundering.
Shrinkage resistance is achieved by controlled surface dissolution of the scales and is usually carried out with chlorine containing compounds in an aqueous or gaseous medium, under acid or alkaline conditions. The two methods are called wet and dry chlorination, respectively. Wool textile materials can also be made shrink resistant by applying to them such resins as polyacrylic, polyurethane or polyamide-epichlorhydrin. Knitted wool garments sold under the registered trademark of Superwash Wool have been treated with one of these resins and are therefore machine washable.
This shrink-resist treatment used to produce Superwash wool is very effective because the fibers first undergo wet chlorination; that is, they are treated with a chlorine solution which partially dissolves the epithelial cells. Only then is polyamide epichlorhydrin resin applied; the cross-linked polymers of the resin attach themselves with covalent bonds to the amide and sulfide groups in the wool polymers on the surface fiber.
(c) Other Fibers
Most thermoplastic fibers will not change their size as these fibers do not absorb moisture and have usually been heat set to a correct size during manufacture. However, cellulose materials, if not properly treated, can shrink so that a garment may be no longer usable.
Easy Care
When nylon, the polyesters and other thermoplastic fibers first came on the market, women experienced the joy of clothes that did not need ironing after every wearing or washing. They were used to having wrinkles hang out from woolen clothes, but wool was not suitable for all uses. To answer the demand for less ironing of all fabrics, chemists developed finishes for cotton, linen and rayon which were first called "wash and wear". So many problems developed that women began to think of these finishes as "wash and beware". Although wash and wear is still used in the US, the term "easy care" is a more accurate description for these garments.
These fabrics may need a little touch-up after washing, but no longer is it necessary to sprinkle, starch and laboriously iron every one.
Fabrics which have terms "wash and wear", "wrinkle-resistant" and "easy care" on their labels are made in a similar manner. Chemical substances, often resins, are applied to the fabrics in different ways. These resin particles penetrate fibers more or less uniformly or are permanently cross-linked with fiber molecules. Cross-linked fibers act much like a spring in a screen door - they return to their original shape when the strain is released. Just as a spring makes it harder to open the screen door, it is harder to wrinkle fabrics that are cross-linked or have resin finishes.
Note: The resin is depicted as the blue bolt with the green nut ends. The green nut end fixes into the fiber in the fiber's green receptor and so makes it harder for the fiber to alter its shape.
Resin finishes make the fibers less absorbent and therefore such fabrics will dry more quickly. They are warmer to wear, and may be less comfortable in warm humid weather.
Many cotton fabrics lose their strength when reacting to these chemical treatments and have a lower tear strength. Such cottons are often blended with polyesters or nylons for more strength. Others have an unpleasant odor, especially when moist.
One type of resin will react with chlorine in a chlorine bleach. This resin is called "chlorine retentive". Sometimes the fabric will turn yellow after washing and being pressed with a warm iron. Eventually the concentrated chlorine will disintegrate the fabric. The tag on most fabrics bearing this finish has the words - "Do not bleach". However it is wise not to use a chlorine type of bleach on any fabric that claims to have an easy care finish unless the label states that it may be bleached.
All such fabrics should be washed in cool or luke-warm water unless otherwise stated. Hot water may remove the resins, and then the fabric will no longer have its easy-care properties.
Some oily stains are difficult to remove from these finishes, especially if allowed to become set. "Come Clean" and "Soil Off" are examples of special finishes to release oily soil easily. It is advisable to remove all stains as soon as possible and never to press stained clothes of any kind.
Despite problems created by the finishes, women naturally prefer these fabrics as they are easy to care for and retain their appearance well. But remember, easy care does not mean no care. Follow directions on the label.
Soil-Retardant
Soli-retardant finishes are used on cellulosic fabrics that cannot be laundered easily. The first attempt was made on rayon carpeting. Upholstery fabrics of cotton and rayon soil readily and need this kind of finish. Mixes containing colloidal silica or alumina have given good results. The semi-microscopic particles fill surface pores, which are the main gathering places for soil. Other finishes reduce the positive charges on the fibers, so they will no longer attract negative charged soil.
Soil-Release Finishes Soil-release finishes became important when consumers became more critical of oil-staining of durable-press garments. Soil-release finishes are said to be effective usually with one "warm water" wash. For stubborn stains, one or two washes in hot water may be necessary. One technique called "alpha radiation" is due to the technology by Derring-Milliken. The process of how soil is released is probably due to a suitable chemical or monomer being grafted onto the polyester component to form a protective coating thus preventing deep penetration of the stain.
A tonsil-retentive finish is a chemical additive that deposits a hydrophilic chemical charge that resists staining and repositioning of soil.
References:
[1] N. Hollen and J. Saddler, Textiles, 3rd Edition, MacMillan Company, London (1968).
[2] E.P.G. Gohl and L.D. Vilensky, Textile Science, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne (1989)
[3] E. J. Gawne, Fabrics For Clothing, Chas. A. Bennett Co., Inc., Peoria, Illinois (1973).
This is the eighty-ninth post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory Of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Introduction
We have covered an array of different finishes from mechanical to pleating to beetling to decatizing to tendering to shearing etc. We have also covered additive and chemical finishes. Today's post will concentrate on: antiseptic finishes, anti-shrink treatments for wool, soil-retardant finishes; soil release finishes; insulating finishes; anti-static finishes.
It is interesting to note that sizing and chemicals make up 4% of the overall cost of fabrics to the consumer (see below).
Other Finishes
Antiseptic Finishes
Antiseptic finishes are used to inhibit the growth of bacteria and other odor-causing germs and to prevent the decay and damage from perspiration.
These finishes are important in skin-contact clothing, shoe linings and especially hospital linens. The chemicals used are surface reactants, mostly quaternary ammonia compounds. Those substances can be added to the spinning solution of rayon and acetate fibers. Most diaper service establishments add the finish during laundering.
Anti-Shrink Treatments
(a) Labelling
Many labels state that a garment is preshrunk, but this term is of little value. What you need to know is how much more it will shrink. Less than 1% residual or remaining shrinkage will not have any noticeable effect on size, but more than 2% can affect the comfort and fit of the garment.
Effect of Resin Finishes
Some fabrics which have resin finishes added for improved crease resistance and water repellency will hold their original shape as long as the resin finish is intact. Improper washing (too much heat and too long agitation) may remove it and then you may find that a dress has become too small "all of a sudden". Anyway, that is the excuse you can use to forgive your additional weight!
(b) Wool
Shrink-resistant wool textile materials can be obtained by:
(i) Modifying the wool fiber surface by partial dissolution of the epithelial cells (scales);
(ii) Coating the wool fiber with a film of resin to mask the epithelial cells.
Both treatments have the same effect; namely, the reduction of the directional friction effect (DFE) caused by scales and responsible for the felting of wool fibers. In reducing the DFE, fiber migration in a root ward direction is minimised when agitation of the wool textile material occurs, as during normal laundering.
Shrinkage resistance is achieved by controlled surface dissolution of the scales and is usually carried out with chlorine containing compounds in an aqueous or gaseous medium, under acid or alkaline conditions. The two methods are called wet and dry chlorination, respectively. Wool textile materials can also be made shrink resistant by applying to them such resins as polyacrylic, polyurethane or polyamide-epichlorhydrin. Knitted wool garments sold under the registered trademark of Superwash Wool have been treated with one of these resins and are therefore machine washable.
This shrink-resist treatment used to produce Superwash wool is very effective because the fibers first undergo wet chlorination; that is, they are treated with a chlorine solution which partially dissolves the epithelial cells. Only then is polyamide epichlorhydrin resin applied; the cross-linked polymers of the resin attach themselves with covalent bonds to the amide and sulfide groups in the wool polymers on the surface fiber.
(c) Other Fibers
Most thermoplastic fibers will not change their size as these fibers do not absorb moisture and have usually been heat set to a correct size during manufacture. However, cellulose materials, if not properly treated, can shrink so that a garment may be no longer usable.
Easy Care
When nylon, the polyesters and other thermoplastic fibers first came on the market, women experienced the joy of clothes that did not need ironing after every wearing or washing. They were used to having wrinkles hang out from woolen clothes, but wool was not suitable for all uses. To answer the demand for less ironing of all fabrics, chemists developed finishes for cotton, linen and rayon which were first called "wash and wear". So many problems developed that women began to think of these finishes as "wash and beware". Although wash and wear is still used in the US, the term "easy care" is a more accurate description for these garments.
These fabrics may need a little touch-up after washing, but no longer is it necessary to sprinkle, starch and laboriously iron every one.
Fabrics which have terms "wash and wear", "wrinkle-resistant" and "easy care" on their labels are made in a similar manner. Chemical substances, often resins, are applied to the fabrics in different ways. These resin particles penetrate fibers more or less uniformly or are permanently cross-linked with fiber molecules. Cross-linked fibers act much like a spring in a screen door - they return to their original shape when the strain is released. Just as a spring makes it harder to open the screen door, it is harder to wrinkle fabrics that are cross-linked or have resin finishes.
Resin finishes make the fibers less absorbent and therefore such fabrics will dry more quickly. They are warmer to wear, and may be less comfortable in warm humid weather.
Many cotton fabrics lose their strength when reacting to these chemical treatments and have a lower tear strength. Such cottons are often blended with polyesters or nylons for more strength. Others have an unpleasant odor, especially when moist.
One type of resin will react with chlorine in a chlorine bleach. This resin is called "chlorine retentive". Sometimes the fabric will turn yellow after washing and being pressed with a warm iron. Eventually the concentrated chlorine will disintegrate the fabric. The tag on most fabrics bearing this finish has the words - "Do not bleach". However it is wise not to use a chlorine type of bleach on any fabric that claims to have an easy care finish unless the label states that it may be bleached.
All such fabrics should be washed in cool or luke-warm water unless otherwise stated. Hot water may remove the resins, and then the fabric will no longer have its easy-care properties.
Some oily stains are difficult to remove from these finishes, especially if allowed to become set. "Come Clean" and "Soil Off" are examples of special finishes to release oily soil easily. It is advisable to remove all stains as soon as possible and never to press stained clothes of any kind.
Despite problems created by the finishes, women naturally prefer these fabrics as they are easy to care for and retain their appearance well. But remember, easy care does not mean no care. Follow directions on the label.
Soil-Retardant
Soli-retardant finishes are used on cellulosic fabrics that cannot be laundered easily. The first attempt was made on rayon carpeting. Upholstery fabrics of cotton and rayon soil readily and need this kind of finish. Mixes containing colloidal silica or alumina have given good results. The semi-microscopic particles fill surface pores, which are the main gathering places for soil. Other finishes reduce the positive charges on the fibers, so they will no longer attract negative charged soil.
Soil-Release Finishes Soil-release finishes became important when consumers became more critical of oil-staining of durable-press garments. Soil-release finishes are said to be effective usually with one "warm water" wash. For stubborn stains, one or two washes in hot water may be necessary. One technique called "alpha radiation" is due to the technology by Derring-Milliken. The process of how soil is released is probably due to a suitable chemical or monomer being grafted onto the polyester component to form a protective coating thus preventing deep penetration of the stain.
A tonsil-retentive finish is a chemical additive that deposits a hydrophilic chemical charge that resists staining and repositioning of soil.
References:
[1] N. Hollen and J. Saddler, Textiles, 3rd Edition, MacMillan Company, London (1968).
[2] E.P.G. Gohl and L.D. Vilensky, Textile Science, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne (1989)
[3] E. J. Gawne, Fabrics For Clothing, Chas. A. Bennett Co., Inc., Peoria, Illinois (1973).
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