Preamble
This is the one hundredth and seventh post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Introduction
Disperse dyes are classified according to their application. That is, they are dispersed or suspended by a dispersion agent in water, since they are characterized by not having strong polar group(s) and so they are only sparingly soluble in water. Structurally they belong to three main classes – nitroarylamine, azo and anthraquinone.
Structure of a disperse dye - disperse orange 3.
Note: This dye can also be classified as an azoic dye (due to the azo link, -N=N-).
Courtesy of reference [1].
Since they are hydrophobic, van der Waals forces (i.e. dispersion forces) and hydrogen bonding are important in order for disperse dyes to adhere to fibers. They are compatible with hydrophobic fibers, such as polyesters, polyamides, acetates, and less often, used with nylon and acrylics.
Artist: Marie-Therese Wisniowski.
Title: Wangi's Djirang (ArtCloth).
Note: 16th print out of 40 unique state prints.
Technique and Media: The artist's signature MultiSperse Dye Sublimation (MSDS) technique employing disperse dyes, native flora and multiple resists on delustered satin.
Dyeing With Disperse Dyes
Disperse dyes are added to water with a surface-active agent to form an aqueous dispersion. The insolubility of the disperse dyes enables them to leave the dye liquor as they are more substantive to the organic fiber than to the relatively inorganic aqueous dye liquor. The application of heat to the dye liquor increases the translation and vibration energy of dye molecules and accelerates the dyeing of the textile fiber.
Heating the dye liquor swells the fiber to some extent and assists the dye to penetrate the fiber polymer surface, resulting in the dye being located in the amorphous regions of the fiber. Once within the fiber surface, the dye molecules are held to the fiber by van der Waals' forces and hydrogen bonds.
Polyester fibers are extremely crystalline and hydrophobic, and it is difficult to obtain medium to dark shades even by dyeing at the boil. In order to obtain medium to dark shades, polyester fibers are dyed using carriers or by using high temperature dyeing techniques.
Some of the vast array of hues available with disperse dyes.
Courtesy - http://detail.en.china.cn
Dyeing with Carriers
The extremely crystalline nature of polyester fibers presented difficulties in obtaining dark shades by conventional dyeing methods, even with the temperature of the dye liquor at the boil. It was later discovered that certain organic compounds assisted disperse dyes to enter the polyester fiber polymer enabling the production of darker shades. The actual mechanism is still in debate. However, the most common explanation is that the carriers swell the polyester fiber polymer and in doing so opens channels for the dye to enter the amorphous region of the fiber and so enables more dye to adhere to the fiber.
High Temperature Dyeing
This dyeing technique is carried out at a temperature above the boil (i.e. in the range of 100-130oC) and under pressure from 0 to 170kPa. This method of dyeing is also called pressure dyeing and it is generally used for highly crystalline synthetic fibers or fiber blends containing these fibers. The technique causes fibers to swell at more than 100oC and so opening up channels for the dye to penetrate deeper into the fiber's polymer system, due to an increase in the fibers' surface molecular vibrations.
High temperature dyeing is particularly useful for dyeing polyester fibers. It eliminates the need for carriers, which adds extra cost as well as reduce OH & S issues (e.g. reduction of unpleasant odors), both of which need to be removed by thorough scouring and rinsing of the material.
Printing With Disperse Dyes
Disperse dyes can be applied to textiles via normal Printing methods. Dye fixation in the fiber polymer system is achieved by wet or dry steaming. In both cases the heat applied increases the translational and vibrational energy of the dye molecules, ensuring their adequate penetration of the fiber polymer system.
Transfer Printing
Disperse dyes are utilized in what is commonly termed "transfer printing". In reality this process should be termed sublimation printing. Sublimation describes a process that goes from a solid state to a gas state without passing though a liquid state. Dry ice has this property.
In sublimation printing once the dye has been painted on a paper and is dry, the painted side of the paper is placed on top of the fabric surface that is to be dyed. Then heat is applied via an iron or a heat press (under pressure) to the back of the dry dyed paper. The dye vaporizes from the paper and infuses into the surface of the target fabric. The vapor dye reacts with the target fabric surface and adheres to it via dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding. The heat of the iron serves a dual purpose: (a) it vaporizes the dye; (b) it assists the dye to infuse into the fabric surface and adhere to it.
We need to examine (a) and (b) more closely in order to appreciate the importance of the amount of heat applied in the disperse dye process. With respect to (a), the more heat that is applied the more dye is vaporized, and so the more dye is available for uptake and adhesion to the fabric. With respect to (b), the more heat that is applied (under pressure) the more vigorously the surface fiber molecules vibrate, the more passages become available for the vaporized dye to venture into the voids of the amorphous region of the fiber, the greater the promotion of dye uptake and adhesion to the fabric. That is why the amount of heat applied by the iron or heat press is so important since it determines the amount of dye that sublimates, the amount of dye the fabric uptakes and adheres to. Parts (a) and (b) work hand in hand to achieve that end. Not enough applied heat results in a very pale dyed fabric. However, there is a trade-off. The more heat you apply the greater the possibility of damaging the fabric and the transfer paper. You need to walk this tight rope for each fabric and paper you choose.
Finally, the transfer printing process is used mainly on textile materials with at least 65% thermoplastic fibers and so invariably disperse dyes are used.
Properties of Disperse Dyes
Light-Fastness
Textile materials that have been colored by disperse dyes have a fair-to-good light-fastness. The light-fastness is ca. 4-5. This is attributed in part to the non-polar nature of dye molecules, which will not readily attract water molecules and other polar compounds that may have a degrading effect. Furthermore, the aromatic, that is the benzene-like structure of disperse dyes, gives them a relative stable structure. Only prolonged exposure to UV light will cause any significant loss of color to occur in a disperse dyed colored textile material.
Wash-Fastness
Textile materials colored with disperse dyes have a moderate-to-good wash-fastness, with a rating about 3-4. This is partly attributed to the insolubility of disperse dye molecules and due to the hydrophobic nature of their fibers.
Gas-Fading
In the presence of nitrous oxide, textile materials dyed with certain blue and violet disperse dyes (with an anthraquinone structure) will fade.
Nitrous oxide is produced by open gas fires or when nitrogen and oxygen are forced to react by the red hot elements of electric heaters.
Fading caused by nitrous oxide can be minimized by treating the textile material with a chemical based on an azoic thiophene-benzene complex. The improved resistance to gas fading occurs because nitrous oxide will react with this complex in preference to the disperse dye molecule.
Sublimation
Fading of textile materials colored with disperse dyes can occur, if excessive hot pressing or ironing is applied during the transfer printing process. This is due to the excessive heat and pressure which causes the disperse dye to vaporize or sublime and leave the fiber. Fading may even be apparent after the application of the heat.
References:
[1] A Fritz and J. Cant, Consumer Textiles, Oxford University Press, Melbourne (1986).
[2] E.P.G. Gohl and L.D. Vilensky, Textile Science, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne (1989).
This is the one hundredth and seventh post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Introduction
Disperse dyes are classified according to their application. That is, they are dispersed or suspended by a dispersion agent in water, since they are characterized by not having strong polar group(s) and so they are only sparingly soluble in water. Structurally they belong to three main classes – nitroarylamine, azo and anthraquinone.
Note: This dye can also be classified as an azoic dye (due to the azo link, -N=N-).
Courtesy of reference [1].
Since they are hydrophobic, van der Waals forces (i.e. dispersion forces) and hydrogen bonding are important in order for disperse dyes to adhere to fibers. They are compatible with hydrophobic fibers, such as polyesters, polyamides, acetates, and less often, used with nylon and acrylics.
Title: Wangi's Djirang (ArtCloth).
Note: 16th print out of 40 unique state prints.
Technique and Media: The artist's signature MultiSperse Dye Sublimation (MSDS) technique employing disperse dyes, native flora and multiple resists on delustered satin.
Dyeing With Disperse Dyes
Disperse dyes are added to water with a surface-active agent to form an aqueous dispersion. The insolubility of the disperse dyes enables them to leave the dye liquor as they are more substantive to the organic fiber than to the relatively inorganic aqueous dye liquor. The application of heat to the dye liquor increases the translation and vibration energy of dye molecules and accelerates the dyeing of the textile fiber.
Heating the dye liquor swells the fiber to some extent and assists the dye to penetrate the fiber polymer surface, resulting in the dye being located in the amorphous regions of the fiber. Once within the fiber surface, the dye molecules are held to the fiber by van der Waals' forces and hydrogen bonds.
Polyester fibers are extremely crystalline and hydrophobic, and it is difficult to obtain medium to dark shades even by dyeing at the boil. In order to obtain medium to dark shades, polyester fibers are dyed using carriers or by using high temperature dyeing techniques.
Courtesy - http://detail.en.china.cn
Dyeing with Carriers
The extremely crystalline nature of polyester fibers presented difficulties in obtaining dark shades by conventional dyeing methods, even with the temperature of the dye liquor at the boil. It was later discovered that certain organic compounds assisted disperse dyes to enter the polyester fiber polymer enabling the production of darker shades. The actual mechanism is still in debate. However, the most common explanation is that the carriers swell the polyester fiber polymer and in doing so opens channels for the dye to enter the amorphous region of the fiber and so enables more dye to adhere to the fiber.
High Temperature Dyeing
This dyeing technique is carried out at a temperature above the boil (i.e. in the range of 100-130oC) and under pressure from 0 to 170kPa. This method of dyeing is also called pressure dyeing and it is generally used for highly crystalline synthetic fibers or fiber blends containing these fibers. The technique causes fibers to swell at more than 100oC and so opening up channels for the dye to penetrate deeper into the fiber's polymer system, due to an increase in the fibers' surface molecular vibrations.
High temperature dyeing is particularly useful for dyeing polyester fibers. It eliminates the need for carriers, which adds extra cost as well as reduce OH & S issues (e.g. reduction of unpleasant odors), both of which need to be removed by thorough scouring and rinsing of the material.
Printing With Disperse Dyes
Disperse dyes can be applied to textiles via normal Printing methods. Dye fixation in the fiber polymer system is achieved by wet or dry steaming. In both cases the heat applied increases the translational and vibrational energy of the dye molecules, ensuring their adequate penetration of the fiber polymer system.
Transfer Printing
Disperse dyes are utilized in what is commonly termed "transfer printing". In reality this process should be termed sublimation printing. Sublimation describes a process that goes from a solid state to a gas state without passing though a liquid state. Dry ice has this property.
In sublimation printing once the dye has been painted on a paper and is dry, the painted side of the paper is placed on top of the fabric surface that is to be dyed. Then heat is applied via an iron or a heat press (under pressure) to the back of the dry dyed paper. The dye vaporizes from the paper and infuses into the surface of the target fabric. The vapor dye reacts with the target fabric surface and adheres to it via dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding. The heat of the iron serves a dual purpose: (a) it vaporizes the dye; (b) it assists the dye to infuse into the fabric surface and adhere to it.
We need to examine (a) and (b) more closely in order to appreciate the importance of the amount of heat applied in the disperse dye process. With respect to (a), the more heat that is applied the more dye is vaporized, and so the more dye is available for uptake and adhesion to the fabric. With respect to (b), the more heat that is applied (under pressure) the more vigorously the surface fiber molecules vibrate, the more passages become available for the vaporized dye to venture into the voids of the amorphous region of the fiber, the greater the promotion of dye uptake and adhesion to the fabric. That is why the amount of heat applied by the iron or heat press is so important since it determines the amount of dye that sublimates, the amount of dye the fabric uptakes and adheres to. Parts (a) and (b) work hand in hand to achieve that end. Not enough applied heat results in a very pale dyed fabric. However, there is a trade-off. The more heat you apply the greater the possibility of damaging the fabric and the transfer paper. You need to walk this tight rope for each fabric and paper you choose.
Finally, the transfer printing process is used mainly on textile materials with at least 65% thermoplastic fibers and so invariably disperse dyes are used.
Properties of Disperse Dyes
Light-Fastness
Textile materials that have been colored by disperse dyes have a fair-to-good light-fastness. The light-fastness is ca. 4-5. This is attributed in part to the non-polar nature of dye molecules, which will not readily attract water molecules and other polar compounds that may have a degrading effect. Furthermore, the aromatic, that is the benzene-like structure of disperse dyes, gives them a relative stable structure. Only prolonged exposure to UV light will cause any significant loss of color to occur in a disperse dyed colored textile material.
Wash-Fastness
Textile materials colored with disperse dyes have a moderate-to-good wash-fastness, with a rating about 3-4. This is partly attributed to the insolubility of disperse dye molecules and due to the hydrophobic nature of their fibers.
Gas-Fading
In the presence of nitrous oxide, textile materials dyed with certain blue and violet disperse dyes (with an anthraquinone structure) will fade.
Nitrous oxide is produced by open gas fires or when nitrogen and oxygen are forced to react by the red hot elements of electric heaters.
Fading caused by nitrous oxide can be minimized by treating the textile material with a chemical based on an azoic thiophene-benzene complex. The improved resistance to gas fading occurs because nitrous oxide will react with this complex in preference to the disperse dye molecule.
Sublimation
Fading of textile materials colored with disperse dyes can occur, if excessive hot pressing or ironing is applied during the transfer printing process. This is due to the excessive heat and pressure which causes the disperse dye to vaporize or sublime and leave the fiber. Fading may even be apparent after the application of the heat.
References:
[1] A Fritz and J. Cant, Consumer Textiles, Oxford University Press, Melbourne (1986).
[2] E.P.G. Gohl and L.D. Vilensky, Textile Science, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne (1989).
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