Saturday, February 27, 2021

Arte Latino Textiles
ArtCloth

Marie-Therese Wisniowski


Preamble
For your convenience I have listed below posts in this series:
Arte Latino Textiles
Arte Latino Prints
Arte Latino Sculptures - Part I
Arte Latino Sculptures - Part II
Arte Latino Paintings - Part I
Arte Latino Paintings - Part II


Introduction
Arte Latino explores the rich culture that runs through the American experience. The works below were created by artists from a vast array of backgrounds: Puerto Rican, Mexican, American, Cuban American, Central American and South Armerican. Some works are intensely political whilst others explore the nature of personal identity or stamp on our mind the power of factors that shape us.

America like Australia are countries where the indigeneous populations were overwhelmed by immigrants who came from a vast array of different countries, cultures and life experiences. The white Anglo-Saxon male initially dominated the artistic voices of these nations. However, creative talent is far more diverse and so forced its way from the streets, from the painted rocks, from the easels, from the foundaries into the human consciousness. Art is what human beings do with no reward in mind!

This post is the first in a series that explores Arte Latino artworks. I hope you enjoy this series as much as I do.
Marie-Therese


Arte Latino Textiles

Artist and Title of Work: Agueda Martinez, Tapestry Weave Rag Jerga (1994).
Technique and Materials: Woven cotton cloth on cotton yarn warp.
Size: 219.7 x 133.4 cm.
Courtesy: Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Acquisition: Museum purchase in part through the Smthsonian Institution Collections Acquisition Program.
Comment[1]: Born in 1898, Agueda Martinez learned to weave from her uncle, Lorenzi Trujillo, first weaving rag rugs when she was twelve, and later weaving tapestry wool blankets. From 1925 until her death at 102, she lived and worked in Mendanales, New Mexico, not far from Santa Fe, where she carried on textile traditions that had been in her family since the 16th century Spanish conquest. Martinez's vibrant works blend Pueblo and Navajo with early Spanish and north Mexican textile traditions. In addition to working daily at her treadle loom, the artist also bore ten children. Agueda Martinez passed on the weaving tradition by teaching through the Home Education and Livilhood Programs (HELP) in Hernandez and Abiquiu, New Mexico.

Artist and Title of Work: Agueda Martinez, Tapestry Weave Rag Jerga (1994).
Technique and Materials: Woven cotton cloth on cotton yarn warp.
Size: 219.7 x 133.4 cm.
Courtesy: Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Acquisition: Museum purchase in part through the Smthsonian Institution Collections Acquisition Program.
Comment[1]: Agueda Martinez kept beautiful gardens, often using her plants and flowers as dyes for her wool. In this cloth the juxtaposition of reds and greens, complemented by bright yellows, lavenders, and earth tones, create a stunning textile. Martinez called this magnificent work a jerga (floor-cloth) because of its course weave, resulting from her unique method of weaving yarn from strips of recycled T-shirts. An artist who inspired others, Dina Agueda was rightfully proud in stating, "There's no one that can beat me at weaving."

Artist and Title of Work: Amalia Mesa-Bains, An Ofrenda for Dolores del Rio (1984).
Technique and Materials: Mixed media - mirror on plywood, cloth and found and handmade objects.
Size: 369.2 x 184.6 x 123 cm.
Courtesy: Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Acquisition: Museum purchase in part through the Smthsonian Institution Collections Acquisition Program.
Comment[1]: Here Mesa-Bains pays homage to the beloved film star, often cast as the "exotic" woman. Long swags of silk and taffeta puffs hang above the altar, while a delicate lace drapes the niche containing a photograph of the star that takes center stage atop of the mirrored pedestal. Four photographs on each side of the altar further frame del Rio in the context of several of her films. Dried flowers and confetti are strewn on and around the mirror altar, reflecting a feminine quality in the installation, while perfume bottles, an open fan, and jewelery are juxtaposed with Mexican and Chicano bric-a-brac, linking personal effects with cultural symbols. The overall image of this lavish offering is one of glamour, elegance and reverence. Dolores del Rio gave Chicanas an alternative to the Anglo-American standard of beauty. She refused to be cast as a sexy Mexican "spitfire", and instead brought a diginty to each character she portrayed. As with other alaristas - artists who use the altar form - Mesa-Bains uses a religious cultural form to comment on a secular theme.

Artist and Title of Work: Irvin L. Trujillo, The Hook and the Spider (1995).
Technique and Materials: Naturally dyed wool.
Size: 235 x 137.2 x 0.6 cm.
Courtesy: Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Acquisition: Gift of Mr and Mrs Andrew Anderson III.
Comment[1]: The design of this dazzling textile has several influences, including Saltillo weaving elements, African rhythm in the border, and Rio Grande Vallero eight-point star designs at the ends. The center includes yellow and blue ikat spider designs that were dyed with chamiso, a plant fron northern New Mexico, then over-dyed with indigo from central Mexico. To produce the greens, Trujillo combined indigo and chamiso. The different orange shades were dyed with madder root from India and a catechu extract (sap from an acacia bush). As the work progressed, Trujillo noticed all the hook designs, a realization that led to the title - The Hook and the Spider.

Artist and Title of Work: Consuelo Jimenez Underwood, Virgen de los Caminos (Virgin of the Roads). (1994).
Technique and Materials: Embroidered and quilted cotton and silk with graphite.
Size: 147.3 x 91.4 cm.
Courtesy: Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Comment[1]: The Virgen de los Caminos (Virgin of the Roads) represents a guardian spirit of the poor who make the dangerous crossing between Mexico and the United States. The barbed wire symbolizes geopolitical borders that separate insiders from outsiders, inflicting pain and suffering on both sides. The word "caution" and an image of a fleeing family are taken from road signs in Southern California. Quilted in white thread on white cotton fabric, the elements become almost unnoticeable to the viewer, suggesting that those who enter the country from Mexico are invisible to other members of the US society.


Reference:
[1] J. Yorba, Arte Latino: Treasures from the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Watson-Guptill Publications, New York (2001).

Saturday, February 20, 2021

A Phoenix Rises by Kalle Gayn
Book Review & Author Interview

Marie-Therese Wisniowski


Introduction
Art Quill Studio is the Education Division of Art Quill & Co Pty Ltd. I'm a director of the parent company, and I also head Art Quill Studio.

The parent company and its division, Art Quill Studio, mainly focusses on artistic endeavours, especially in the area of ArtCloth and ArtCloth Installations, Commissioned Artworks, Fabric Lengths, Wearable Art and Prints on Paper etc. However, the parent company, Art Quill & Co Pty Ltd, also publishes artist printmakers' books (e.g. Not in My Name and Beyond the Fear of Freedom).

Marie-Therese Wisniowski's Artist Printmakers' Book - Not in My Name.
Limited Edition: A total of 10 editions only, five of which are held in the collections of: University of Queensland Library (6/10), National Library of Australia (7/10), University of Sydney Library (8/10), State Library of New South Wales (9/10) and NSW Parliamentary Library (10/10).
Recommended retail price: AUstralian Dollar (AUD) $1550.00 (plus shipping).
Editions for sale: 2/10, 3/10, 4/10 and 5/10.
ISBN 0 646 42979 5
Online sale currently available from Art Quill & Co Pty Ltd.
To purchase this limted edition printmakers' book please email: admin@artquill.com.au

Marie-Therese Wisniowski's Artist Printmakers' Book - Beyond The Fear Of Freedom.
Limited Edition: A total of 15 editions, seven of which are held in the collections of: Indiana University - Purdue University, Indianapolis (USA) (9/15), Beau Beausoleil (USA) (10/15), Department of Art & Design, University of Western England, Bristol, UK (11/15), The National Library of Australia (12/15), State Library of NSW (13/15), University of Sydney Library (14/15) and NSW Parliamentary Library (15/15).
Recommended retail price: AUD $2,000 (plus shipping).
Editions for sale: 2/15, 3/15, 4/15, 5/15, 6/15, 7/15 and 8/15.
ISBN 978-0-9873013-7
Online sale currently available from Art Quill & Co Pty Ltd.
To purchase this limited edition printmakers' book please email: admin@artquill.com.au

The company has recently published a puzzle solver that is available for purchase from the company.

Dr E I von Nagy-Felsobuki, The Sudoku Solver.
Recommended retail price: AUD $14.99 (plus shipping).
ISBN 978-0-9873013-1-4
In the collection of the following libraries: National Library of Australia, University of Sydney Library, State Library of New South Wales and NSW Parliamentary Library.
Online sale currently available from Art Quill & Co Pty Ltd.
To purchase the solver, please email: admin@artquill.com.au

The company has recently published the first novel in the 'Magrete' trilogy titled - 4 Steps To Freedom. The novel has been set in a historical context in Germany between 1935 to 1949. The first novel in the trilogy can be ordered via a retail bookstore such as booktopia or directly from the distributor: John Reed Books.

Kalle Gayn, 4 Steps to Freedom (Front Cover).
Recommended retail price: AUD $24.99 (plus shipping).
ISBN 978-0-9873013-2-1
The first novel is held in the collection of the following libraries: National Library of Australia, University of Sydney Library, State Library of New South Wales, NSW Parliamentary Library, East Gippsland Shire Library (Vic), Monaro Regional Libraries (Bombala, NSW) and Cessnock City Library (NSW).
Distributor: John Reed Books.
It can be ordered via a retail bookstore such as booktopia or directly from the distributor: John Reed Books.

Kalle Gayn's second novel in the 'Magrete' trilogy, Reign of the Mother, has been set in a historical context mainly in Australia between 1949 to 1954.

Kalle Gayn, Reign of the Mother (Front Cover).
Recommended retail price: AUD $24.99 (plus shipping).
ISBN 978-0-9873013-3-8
The second novel is in the collection of the following libraries: National Library of Australia, University of Sydney Library, State Library of New South Wales and the NSW Parliamentary Library.
Online sale currently available from Art Quill & Co Pty Ltd.
To purchase this novel, please email: admin@artquill.com.au

The company has recently published Kalle Gayn's third novel in the 'Magrete' trilogy and it is titled, 'A Phoenix Rises.' This novel has been set in a historical context mainly in Australia between 1954 to 1959.

Kalle Gayn, A Phoenix Rises (Front Cover).
Recommended retail price: AUD $24.99 (plus shipping).
ISBN 978-0-9873013-4-5.
The third novel in the Magrete trilogy is in the collection of the following libraries: National Library of Australia, University of Sydney Library, State Library of New South Wales and the NSW Parliamentary Library.
Online sale currently available from Art Quill & Co Pty Ltd.
To purchase the solver, please email: admin@artquill.com.au

Back Cover.

To read my interviews with Kalle Gayn about his first two novels in the Magrete trilogy, click on the following links: 4 Steps to Freedom and Reign of the Mother.

All three novels in the Magrete trilogy have been written so they can be read independently. However, reading the three novels will yield a greater insight and understanding of the main character of the trilogy, namely, Magrete.

I was involved as a proofreader as well as being the design and layout artist for the trilogy and so the author, Kalle Gayn, has dedicated each novel in the trilogy to me. I'm hardly an unbiased interviewer!

Today's post is an interview that I conducted with the author about his third novel in the Magrete trilogy, A Phoenix Rises.

I hope you enjoy the interview!

Marie-Therese Wisniowski

PS. If you wish to send an email to the author, Kalle Gayn, email the author at: Kalle Gayn.


A Phoenix Rises
Author Interview: Kalle Gayn

M-T: Welcome back to my blogspot Kalle and thank you for dedicating the trilogy to me.
KG: Thank you for interviewing me after the publication of each novel in the trilogy. Your layout and the design of the covers is such an important ingredient in attracting a readership. To paraphrase an old adage: most novels are initially judged by their covers!
MT: Very droll Kalle! The trilogy falls within the genre of a historical literary fiction. Give our readers an inkling of what that entails?
KG: Briefly, the characters find themselves in a true historical context over which they have little control and so the trilogy centres on how they react and interact to these circumstances as well as with each other. A standout novel in this genre is Dr Zhivago.



I'm not claiming that the trilogy is of the same standard as this brilliant novel. All that I am asserting is that it belongs to the same genre.
MT: We need to give the readers a background to the first two novels of the trilogy. The first novel - 4 Steps to Freedom - centers on a historical context in Germany between 1935 to 1949. Magrete, the main character in the trilogy, comes from an upper middle class background since her father is the Deputy Commissioner of the Vienna Police and a staunch anti-Nazi. Both her parents commit suicide when Austria is invaded by Hitler, whereas her first husband, Herbert von Appen is a staunch Nazi - in fact, a friend of Himmler! Her first husband dies prior to the Second World War, when Magrete is pregnant with their first and only child, Ilse.

During the Second World War, Magrete harbours a girl who is Jewish, Anna, and protects her identity from the Nazis throughout the war. In 1943 Magrete marries Herbert's best friend, George Nagy, and they have three children together, namely, Elisabeth, Eva and Francis - in that order.

Anna and Magrete have a terrible misunderstanding immediately after the war, and so Anna feels estranged from Magrete. Just prior to Anna's departure for America, Magrete and Anna reconcile and so their affection for each other is rekindled when Magrete's family is finally placed in a displaced person's camp in Tailfingen (West Germany).

Displaced Person's Camp.

MT: Phew! Have I left anything out?
KG: No, you have succintly covered the storyline. However, we need to mention that her first husband's family, the von Appens, were extremely wealthy and so they cleverly cashed in their wealth early during the Second World War in order to hedge it against a possible Nazi defeat. The person who is instrumental in organizing the transfer of wealth to Switzerland is Helmut Gruen, who was the CEO of the von Appen's company during the Second World War.
MT: The second novel spans the time from 1949 to 1954 and is mainly centred in Australia. It begins with Magrete's family falling on hard times and being forced to move to a displaced person's camp in Tailfingen. After a few years there, they are finally accepted as displace persons (DPs) because her second husband, George Nagy, is a Hungarian scientist stranded in West Germany. They are accepted in the Australian immigration programme and they arrive in Australia in December of 1949 on the transport ship, General R L Howse.

Transport ship USS General R L Howse, which transports Magrete's family to Australia (fiction) but in reality the ship did serve that purpose after the Second World War.

Anyway I'm digressing. They meet a young woman immigrant on the ship, Wilma, who they befriend. Magrete's youngest son, Francis, becomes seriously ill during the voyage, causing Magrete to be stranded in Melbourne, because her son is hospitalized there. Wilma, Magrete's husband George and their three daughters travelled to Bonegilla Migrant Camp (a real camp in Victoria) without Magrete and Francis.

Bonegilla Migrant Camp (Victoria, Australia).

In Magrete's absence, Wilma and George become lovers. After reuniting with her family in Bonegilla it is obvious to Magrete that her husband had an affair with Wilma.

Helmut Gruen, who is now known as Howard Green, owns an import/export company called the Howard Green Group. He saves Magrete from a life of poverty, and throughout the course of this novel, she regains her wealth by owning numerous hotels and finally creating a hotel company called Brew House Hotels from her wealth that Howard Green stashed in Switzerland for her, during the Second World War. She creates an executive group to run the company and so after many trials and tribulations she regains her wealth in Australia.

Her personal life is initially battered, since the first man she is seriously attracted to, is in fact married. Magrete dumps him before she gets deeply involved. Finally, she meets the man of her dreams, Christian. They fall in love. Of course, Anna vists Magrete in Australia with or without her American husband, Eugene, a few times in both the second and third novels of the trilogy.

One of Magrete's assets, the Essendon Hotel.
Her ownership of this hotel is totally fictious.

MT: How am I doing?
KG: I couldn't have captured the storyline for the first two novels as accurately as you have done, in such few words. Great work!
MT: I really don't want to get too far in the storyline of the third novel, but I want to tackle certain themes within the storyline. In another section of your third novel, the Catholic priest in Beveridge, Victoria, sexually assaulted one of Magrete's children in his church when its relatively empty, namely her son, Francis. Magrete physically assaulted the priest when she witnessed the act and when she reported the priest's sexual assault to a local policeman she was threatened with arrest, because the policeman disbelieved her and moreover, wanted to protect the priest from such accusations. It's a theme that unfortunately is very well documented these days throughout the world.
KG: The Royal Commission into 'Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse in Australia' revealed some very harrowing stories of children that were abused within the Catholic Church and other institutions in Australia. It saddens me that so many complaints that were made by children and adults alike to police and church authorities about sexual abuse by clergy were dismissed. I believe that some of the clergy are psychopaths; that is, they have a personality disorder characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy and remorse, and bold, disinhibited, and egotistical traits.

A church is a place where clergy are dealing with sinners and so this naturally places priests in control, since they are charged with absolving sin. Such an institution would appeal to people with mental disorders. Many archbishops, ministers etc have little empathy or sympathy for abused children, teenagers and young adults that were molested and some were either themselves actively involved in the molestation, whereas others buried their heads in the sand, hoping the accusations would go away. Either way, those who suffered the assaults were blameless, but were made to feel as if they were to blame. This situation won't change unless churches psychoanalyse applicants who wish to join the clergy as well as put in place far more stringent safeguards to protect their vulnerable parishioners.

Pedophile priest Gerald Tisdale jailed for 34 years.

MT: You also touch on the devastating effects that scientology and scientologists can have on individuals. When Ilse becomes trapped into the Church of Scientology, Magrete and Christian (Magrete's third husband) isolate her from the church and arrange for her to go to America to destroy the Church's hold on her. Clearly you see the Church of Scientology as being a sect.
KG: Scientology was banned in Victoria, Australia in the 1950s for good reason, but unfortunately the so-called church was allowed to resurface. I encourage everybody to read Steve Cannane's book,'Fair Game', just to understand why it is a sect.



All I can add to that insightful work of Cannane's is that if Scientology is a religion then so is the Church that I belong to - Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster!

Weddings will be performed by the head of New Zealand’s Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, Ministeroni Karen Martyn.

MT: You also touch on the flip side of the coin, so to speak, gypsies or Romani, and how they are viewed by so many people throughout the world as the lowest of the low. They were also targeted by the Nazi's for extermination but they have never gained the sympathy or recognition that others have.

Very Variegated Vardo

KG: It's sad, isn't it? Some have got recognition for their suffering, whilst others who the majority still has predjuices against, disappear into the background. All lives matter, but some lives barely matter as is evidenced by the number of black Americans who are shot by American police.

MT: You also delve into royal politics and in particular, with the many reported tryst that Prince Philip had in and around the 1950s. It is relevant to the storyline since Magrete's third husband is in fact a Prince of Denmark and so Magrete is not only wealthy in her own right, but she now has royal status and yet she still wants to be away from the public glare.
KG: Where to begin with Prince Philip and his many affairs? You have probably guessed that I'm a Republican! The Queen is powerful and important whereas when Prince Philip married her, he was obscure and unimportant but with an unhealthy ego. Of course there was in Prince Philip's life a “showgirl” and actress Pat Kirkwood, 27, the West End’s biggest star, famous for her shapely legs and amongst many others that the Queen had to ignore.

The Prince once crashed drunkenly into Patricia Kirkwood's dressing room with a friend. Him engaging in love affairs is par for the course. It shocked the world that Prince Andrew had slept with groomed teenagers. Is he still avoiding the US authorities who are investigating what occurred? When Dianna said she was sharing her husband with another woman, the British royals made her appear as if she was the problem! Their recent attempts to paint Lady Dianna as a flake and her husband Prince Charles as "her victim" is just another example of distorting the truth to protect their wealth and their throne. Give me a break! How can a man who admits he talks to flowers because they understand his chatter, have any credibility at all when it comes to understanding reality!



MT: There is a lot of Danish royal politics in the third novel that gives insight into the present Danish monarchy. What was the motive behind including the Danish family?
KG: The Crowned Prince of Denmark is Federick and he married an Australian, Mary Donaldson.

Crowned Prince Federick and Mary Donaldson.

Hence, this enabled me to juxtapose the British and Danish royal households and so made Magrete's journey with a Danish royal more believable and lively.
MT: I will not go on to discuss how Magrete children's lives pan out and how the story of the trilogy ended. However, the ending may be unsatisfactory for some readers who might want to know what happens next? But for others, the ending will be consistent with the way the trilogy is written. Thank you for allowing me to interview you!
KG: Thanks for interviewing me.

Saturday, February 13, 2021

Djerma Weaving of Niger and Burkina-Faso[1]
ArtCloth

Marie-Therese Wisniowski


Preamble
For your convenience I have listed below other posts in this series:
Diversity of African Textiles
African Textiles: West Africa
Stripweaves (West Africa) - Part I
Stripweaves (West Africa) - Part II
Stripweaves (West Africa) - Part III
Stripweaves (West Africa) - Part IV
Djerma Weaving of Niger and Burkina-Faso
Woolen Stripweaves of the Niger Bend
Nigerian Horizontal - Loom Weaving
Yoruba Lace Weave
Nigerian Women's Vertical Looms
The Supplementary Weft Cloths of Ijebu-Ode and Akwete
African Tie and Dye
Tie and Dye of the Dida, Ivory Coast
African Stitch Resist
Yoruba Stitch Resist


Djerma Weaving of Niger and Burkina-Faso[1]
The Djerma are direct descendants of the great medieval Songhai Empire. Nowadays, they inhabit the eastern part of the Niger Bend region. Djerma men are accomplished weavers of cotton covers or blankets.

Textile: From the Djerma people of Niger.
Materials and Techniques: Cotton; plain weave, strip woven, supplementary wefts.

Djerma work is characterized by weft-faced blocks in black or red arranged in a diamond pattern against a white ground. More recent work, woven in towns such as Niamey in Nigerm, is practically indistinguishable from that of neighbouring Songhay and Peul (Fulani) weavers, especially when the blankets are aimed at the tourist market.

Textile: Baayon Djerma.
Materials and Technique: Stripwoven cotton woman's warp from Burkina-Faso[1].

The blankets are strip woven out of cotton and the strips are then sewn together by men. In former times, the cotton would have been grown locally and handspun, but now the cotton thread used for weaving is millspun and dyed in a variety of colors. Yellow, red, green and black are popular colors in modern blankets.

Djerma cotton blankets hanging out to dry on a mud house in Niger.

The Djerma weave on the so-called 'Sudanic' loom which is also used by many neighboring peoples. It consists of a simple frame and round branches and is characterized by the use of a heddle pully with an unusually long pedal. Traditionally the weavers are male.

Dogon carved wooden heddle pulley (from Mali).

The introduction of factory-spun cotton yarn in a wide range of colors, and the urbanization of many of the weavers, has meant that a great variety of highly colored cotton blankets are woven for an urban clientele.

Left section of a Djerma stripwoven cotton man's cloth from Niger.

Right section of the above Djerma stripwoven cotton man's cloth from Niger.


Reference:
[1] J. Gillow, African Textiles, Thames & Hudson Ltd, London (2003).

Saturday, February 6, 2021

Direct Dyes[1-2]
Art Resource

Marie-Therese Wisniowki

Preamble
This is the one hundredth and eigth post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves РPiqu̩ Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing

There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.

If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.

The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!


Introduction
Direct dyes are also called substantive colors, because of their excellent substantivity for cellulose textile materials. Hence, the fibers most readily colored with direct dyes are the man-made and natural cellulose fibers, such as cotton and viscose fibers.

Pots of Direct Dyes.

Direct dyes have excellent substantivity for cellulosic fibers.

Direct dyes are long flat ribbon like molecules – some are small, whilst others are larger in size. Hence, the classification of what constitutes a direct dye is based on its application and not on its chemical structure.

Direct Dye - blue 81 (C.I. 34215).
Courtesy of reference [1].

Many of the direct dyes are in fact natural colorants (e.g. from onion skins, lichens, flowers etc.) All direct dyes have enough charged groups (e.g. –SO3- sulfonic groups) to make them water soluble, even though for the larger direct dyes they may possess hydrophobic components (water hating).

Many direct dyes are sodium salts of sulfonic acids (see above) and so in this respect are similar to acid dyes. In fact, some dyes that are applied as direct dyes have the same formula as acid dyes and so both are one of the same.

All direct dyes have a special affinity for cellulosic fibers, since their ribbon like shapes align effectively within the cellulosic fibers. The dye-fiber interactions form many van der Waals bonds or forces of attraction and hydrogen bonds along the length of the cellulosic fibers, thereby holding the dye molecules firmly in place within the fiber structure.

The ribbon like shape of Direct Dyes fit smugly within the cellulosic fibers.
Courtesy of reference [1].

Direct Dyes fall into two categories depending on their size and shape:
(a) Those that are able to move around the dye bath, rapidly absorbing and desorbing easily from the fiber, and so enable an even distribution over the fabric. These are termed level dyeing Direct Dyes.
(b) Those that are strongly attached to the fiber and so cannot distribute themselves evenly (without further action by the dyer) thereby producing a streaky or unlevel dyeing result.


Dyeing with Direct Dyes
Direct Dyes are applied to cellulosic fibers from an aqueous liquor to which is added an electrolyte, which is usually sodium chloride (table salt) or Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4). The addition of the electrolyte to the dye liquor is essential to obtain adequate exhaustion of the dye molecules by the fiber polymer system.

The addition of sodium salts assists in the fiber polymer system uptake of the Direct Dye. For example, once the salt is dissolved it produces sodium cations, Na+, which are attracted to the negative sites of the cellulosic fiber and so neutralizes these sites, thereby allowing the negatively charged dye molecule to approach the fiber molecules and finally to bond to them via van der Waals forces and polar attractions. That is, the negative sites on the fiber are first neutralized by the Na+ ions of the dissolved salt, thereby allowing the negative dye molecule to approach the fiber and to create bonds with the fiber molecule and in doing so displacing the original Na+ ions. The dye molecules being much larger than Na+ ions, take a much longer time to reach the fiber sites.

The sodium cations (Na+) neutralizes the fiber surface enabling the dye anion to enter the fiber polymer system.
Courtesy of reference [1].

The application of heat to the dye liquor increases the kinetic energy of all the constituents of the dye liquor, as well as enlarges the voids in the amorphous regions of the fiber polymer system. Both processes accelerate and increase the rate of dye uptake.


Printing with Direct Dyes
The application of Direct Dyes by printing is in principle the same as in dyeing, with the proviso that a thickener is added to restrict the dye and so ensure that the color does not run. Dye fixation is achieved through the application of steam heating and the addition of an electrolyte, which assists the dye molecule to leave the printing paste and penetrate into the fiber polymer system (as described above for heating the dye liquor in the dyeing process).

Properties of Direct Dyes
Light-Fastness
Dyed and printed direct color has a moderate light-fastness, which is rated at about 3. A relatively short exposure to direct sunlight is enough to initiate degradation of the dyed and printed color due to the gradual breakdown of their chromophores, resulting in a gradual fading of color.

Wash-Fastness
Direct dyed or printed cellulosic fibers have a comparatively poor wash-fastness, which is rated at about 2-3. Both forces of attraction (i.e. hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces) between the dye anion and the fiber polymer system are essential and so under the alkali conditions of laundering, these weak bonds are hydrolyzed by the water, resulting in the gradual removal of the dye from the cellulosic polymer system and so resulting a noticeable fading of color.

Direct Dyes are easy to apply, comparatively low in cost, they have a wide range of available colors and so these factors alone provide more than enough motivation to develop after treatments in order to increase their wash-fastness. As the Direct Dye anion uptake is in the amorphous regions of the fiber polymer system, then the application of heat to enlarge the voids in this region, would suggest that making the direct dye anion larger in size, would trap and entangle them more effectively when these voids reduce in size as the fiber cools, thereby increasing their wash-fastness rating.

Four such methods based on the above concept have been developed and they are as follows.
(i) Diazotisation
Certain direct dyes possess a chemical structure so that should be classified as azoic dyes. This means that these type of Direct Dyes can be treated with naphthol and the dye anion would be enlarged, which improves their wash-fastness from poor to good. Diazotisation, however, causes an alteration in the hue and this factor must be considered when this method is used to improve this class of Direct Dye.

(ii) Copper After-Treatment
When certain Direct Dyes are treated with copper sulfate, the copper forms a metal complex with the Direct Dye, resulting in a Direct Dye molecule larger in size. However, this only slightly improves the wash-fastness of the Direct Dye.

(iii) Cationic Agents
In aqueous solution the Direct Dye molecules situated in the fiber polymer system ionizes slightly, and so the color component of the molecule is negatively charged (i.e. it is called an anion). As soon as a positively charged (or cationic) agent is added to the solution, it will be attracted to the negatively charged dye component and so form a much larger complex Direct Dye molecule, thereby improving its wash-fastness. However, it does this at a cost, by reducing its light-fastness, since the electronic configuration of its chromophores have now been lowered in energy, thereby decreasing their resistance to UV sunlight.

(iv) Formaldehyde After-Treatment
Certain (but not all) Direct Dyes will react with formaldehyde (HCHO) when heated between 70oC to 80oC, under slightly acidic conditions. The resulting Direct Dye molecules now appear to be joined together by methylene (-CH2-) cross links, generating a much larger in size Direct Dye molecular complex, thereby increasing its wash-fastness.

In summary, all the above four methods have been employed to improve the wash-fastness of Direct Dyes. Nevertheless, while after-treatment improves wash-fastness to some extent, improvements that have been achieved still leave much to be desired.


References:
[1] A Fritz and J. Cant, Consumer Textiles, Oxford University Press, Melbourne (1986).
[2] E.P.G. Gohl and L.D. Vilensky, Textile Science, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne (1989).