Preamble
This is the one hundredth and ninth post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Introduction
Reactive dyes can be defined as dyes that form covalent bonds with fiber molecules. Covalent bonds are extremely strong and so this ensures that the dyes have an excellent all round fastness. Moreover, the formation of a covalent bond between the dye and fiber makes it possible to use dyes of small molecular size with good solubility. These dyes employ an ideal range of chromophores that can be brighter, fast diffusing, and in the hydrolyzed form, are easily removed in the washing-off process.
Two typical reactive dyes are chlorotriazinyl and vinyl sulfonate. The dye component forms a covalent bond with these groups. The hydroxyl group (-OH) of the cellulosic fiber then reacts with these dyes to form strong covalent bonds with the fiber polymer systems. These reactions occur in the amorphous regions of the fiber polymer systems, since these regions have large voids that can accommodate the dyes.
Chlorotriazinyl dye compound reacting with the hydoxyl group of a cellulosic fiber polymer system.
Note: Reaction occurs in the amorphous region of the cellulosic polymer system.
Courtesy of reference [1].
Vinyl sulfone dye compound reacting with the hydoxyl group of a cellulosic fiber polymer system.
Note: Rection ccurs in the amorphous regions of the cellulosic polymer system.
Courtesy of reference [1].
The first such dyes, the Procions, were introduced in 1956 by ICI. The reactive dyes were originally developed for direct dyeing of cotton and cellulosic fibers. Their outstanding properties led to dyes that were applicable to wool and silk. In summary, the fibers most readily colored with reactive dyes are the man-made and natural cellulose fibers, synthetic nylon, and natural protein fibers.
Man-Made and Natural Cellulosic Fibers
The dye liquor is prepared in a similar manner to that of direct dyes (see direct dyes in this series). The reactive dye is dissolved in water to which an electrolyte is added to assist the exhaustion of the dye. The textile material is then introduced to the dye liquor and the dye is exhausted onto the fibers.
For the reaction between the dye and the fiber to take place, alkali must be added to the dye liquor. With some reactive dyes, the addition of alkali can be carried out at room temperature. However, with most reactive dyes, the temperature of the dye liquor must be increased, in some cases to the boil, to promote the reaction between the dye molecule and the polymer system of the fiber. It should be noted that reactive dyes have specific temperatures to effect optimum reactions between the dyes and the target fibers. In any case, the addition of the alkali is required for the formation of the covalent bond between the dye molecules and the cellulose fibers.
Nylon Fibers
For nylon fibers the dye liquor is made slightly acidic. Heat is applied to assist the exhaustion of the dye, with the chemical reaction being promoted due to the addition of the alkali. For nylon fibers, the covalent bond is formed between the dye molecule and the terminal amino group of the polyamide fiber polymer.
Protein Fibers
Reactive dyes are applied to protein fibers under slightly acidic conditions. Formation of the covalent bond is between the dye molecule and the fiber polymer at elevated temperatures. Once again the optimum temperature for bond formation is dye specific. The application of heat to the dye liquor serves two purposes: (i) it increases exhaustion of the dye onto the fibers; (ii) it promotes bond formation between the dye molecule and the fiber. Further dye-fiber reaction can be effected by raising the pH of the dye bath to ca. 8-8.5 with ammonia.
Reactive dyes can form covalent bonds with protein fibers with one of the following groups: the -SH group of cystein and the hydroxyl group of the tyrosine amino acid residue. However, most covalent bonds occur with the amino groups since these are more prevalent than the other groups.
Printing With Reactive Dyes
Reactive dyes can be used for printing textile materials such as wool and cellulosic fibers. The printed materials are wet steamed in order to ensure that the dye molecule penetrates the polymer system of the fiber in order to form a covalent bond.
Properties Of Reactive Dyes
General Properties
A bath dyeing of polyamide/cotton using reactive dyes. In the acid phase (top), the polyamide dyes strongly, but the cotton takes up very little dye. In the following alkaline phase (lower) the cotton is dyed to a similar depth of shade.
Depending on the reactivity of the dye, it may be applied under cold or hot conditions. Cold water dyes can be used successfully with a variety of dyeing methods, such as batik and shibori.
Effect of Time on Uptake of Reactive Dye.
Percentage figures indicate dye bath concentration.
A: Treated with salt for 30 minutes and dyed with soda for 90 minutes at 50oC.
B: Treated with salt for 60 minutes and dyed with soda for 180 minutes at 50oC.
Note: The much greater dye uptake by mercerized cotton.
Courtesy reference [1].
When selecting dyes for printing, attention must be given to the printing paste stability and staining of the ground during washing-off. Moreover, it is important that the fibers are pre-treated. Woven fabrics must be thoroughly de-sized as reaction with size and azo dye reduction, under hot alkaline conditions in the presence of reducing end-groups – both lead to lower color yield. Mercerization of cotton, or semi-mercerization, is recommended because reactive dyes give full color value on unmercerized cotton. With regenerated cellulose, suitable pre-treatment leads to improved prints.
Alginates, such as sodium alginate, are the only natural thickeners found to be suitable for printing with reactive dyes. All other carbohydrates react with the dyes resulting in low color yields or unsatisfactory fabric handle due to the insolublization of the thickener.
It is most important for prints that the fixation and hydrolysis precede to completeness so that no dye in the reactive form remains to stain the white ground. Reactive dyes can be printed without alkali, using a thickener that gels when an alkaline solution is subsequently applied to bring about fixation.
Light-Fastness
In general, textile materials colored by reactive dyes have very good light-fastness, with a rating of approximately 6. Due to strong covalent bonding between the dye and fiber, these dyes generally have very good resistance to the degrading effect of UV light. However, not all reactive dyes form strong covalent bonds and so some have only fair light-fastness.
Wash-Fastness
As in the case of light-fastness, textile materials colored with reactive dyes generally have good wash-fastness with a rating of ca. 4-5. Under the usual laundering and dry-cleaning conditions, there are few chemicals that can break the covalent bond between the dye and the fiber.
Washing-Off
Textile materials colored by reactive dyes have to be thoroughly rinsed and scoured. Since reactive dyes can react with the -OH group of the water molecule, competition for the dye can occur, producing dye molecules with a poor substantivity for the fiber. The washing off process (involving scouring and rinsing) removes these dye molecules from the fabric. If these dye molecules are not removed, poor rub-fastness may occur.
Effect of Acid
The formation of a covalent bond between the dye molecule and fiber chemical groups occurs under alkaline conditions. The presence of acids may reverse this process. Perspiration and atmospheric pollution are both acid in nature and so may result in some fading of the textile color.
Effect of Chlorine
When reactive dyes were first introduced it was found that some of them were adversely affected by bleaches containing chlorine. Hence swimwear dyed with these reactive dyes would be at risk to fade as well as clothing worn frequently near swimming pools. It is therefore imperative to choose the right reactive dye (that is one that is chlorine resistant) for clothing in these circumstances.
References:
[1] A Fritz and J. Cant, Consumer Textiles, Oxford University Press, Melbourne (1986).
[2] E.P.G. Gohl and L.D. Vilensky, Textile Science, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne (1989).
This is the one hundredth and ninth post in the "Art Resource" series, specifically aimed to construct an appropriate knowledge base in order to develop an artistic voice in ArtCloth.
Other posts in this series are:
Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms
Units Used in Dyeing and Printing of Fabrics
Occupational, Health & Safety
A Brief History of Color
The Nature of Color
Psychology of Color
Color Schemes
The Naming of Colors
The Munsell Color Classification System
Methuen Color Index and Classification System
The CIE System
Pantone - A Modern Color Classification System
Optical Properties of Fiber Materials
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part I
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part II
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part III
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part IV
General Properties of Fiber Polymers and Fibers - Part V
Protein Fibers - Wool
Protein Fibers - Speciality Hair Fibers
Protein Fibers - Silk
Protein Fibers - Wool versus Silk
Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Cotton
Cellulosic Fibers (Natural) - Linen
Other Natural Cellulosic Fibers
General Overview of Man-Made Fibers
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Viscose
Man-Made Cellulosic Fibers - Esters
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Nylon
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Polyester
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Acrylic and Modacrylic
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Olefins
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Elastomers
Man-Made Synthetic Fibers - Mineral Fibers
Man Made Fibers - Other Textile Fibers
Fiber Blends
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part I
From Fiber to Yarn: Overview - Part II
Melt-Spun Fibers
Characteristics of Filament Yarn
Yarn Classification
Direct Spun Yarns
Textured Filament Yarns
Fabric Construction - Felt
Fabric Construction - Nonwoven fabrics
A Fashion Data Base
Fabric Construction - Leather
Fabric Construction - Films
Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins
Fabric Construction – Foams and Poromeric Material
Knitting
Hosiery
Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns
Weaving and the Loom
Similarities and Differences in Woven Fabrics
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part I)
The Three Basic Weaves - Plain Weave (Part II)
The Three Basic Weaves - Twill Weave
The Three Basic Weaves - Satin Weave
Figured Weaves - Leno Weave
Figured Weaves – Piqué Weave
Figured Fabrics
Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements
Crêpe Fabrics
Crêpe Effect Fabrics
Pile Fabrics - General
Woven Pile Fabrics
Chenille Yarn and Tufted Pile Fabrics
Knit-Pile Fabrics
Flocked Pile Fabrics and Other Pile Construction Processes
Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms
Napped Fabrics – Part I
Napped Fabrics – Part II
Double Cloth
Multicomponent Fabrics
Knit-Sew or Stitch Through Fabrics
Finishes - Overview
Finishes - Initial Fabric Cleaning
Mechanical Finishes - Part I
Mechanical Finishes - Part II
Additive Finishes
Chemical Finishes - Bleaching
Glossary of Scientific Terms
Chemical Finishes - Acid Finishes
Finishes: Mercerization
Finishes: Waterproof and Water-Repellent Fabrics
Finishes: Flame-Proofed Fabrics
Finishes to Prevent Attack by Insects and Micro-Organisms
Other Finishes
Shrinkage - Part I
Shrinkage - Part II
Progressive Shrinkage and Methods of Control
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part I
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part II
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part III
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part IV
Durable Press and Wash-and-Wear Finishes - Part V
The General Theory of Dyeing – Part I
The General Theory of Dyeing - Part II
Natural Dyes
Natural Dyes - Indigo
Mordant Dyes
Premetallized Dyes
Azoic Dyes
Basic Dyes
Acid Dyes
Disperse Dyes
Direct Dyes
Reactive Dyes
Sulfur Dyes
Blends – Fibers and Direct Dyeing
The General Theory of Printing
There are currently eight data bases on this blogspot, namely, the Glossary of Cultural and Architectural Terms, Timelines of Fabrics, Dyes and Other Stuff, A Fashion Data Base, the Glossary of Colors, Dyes, Inks, Pigments and Resins, the Glossary of Fabrics, Fibers, Finishes, Garments and Yarns, Glossary of Art, Artists, Art Motifs and Art Movements, Glossary of Paper, Photography, Printing, Prints and Publication Terms and the Glossary of Scientific Terms, which has been updated to Version 3.5. All data bases will be updated from time-to-time in the future.
If you find any post on this blog site useful, you can save it or copy and paste it into your own "Word" document etc. for your future reference. For example, Safari allows you to save a post (e.g. click on "File", click on "Print" and release, click on "PDF" and then click on "Save As" and release - and a PDF should appear where you have stored it). Safari also allows you to mail a post to a friend (click on "File", and then point cursor to "Mail Contents On This Page" and release). Either way, this or other posts on this site may be a useful Art Resource for you.
The Art Resource series will be the first post in each calendar month. Remember - these Art Resource posts span information that will be useful for a home hobbyist to that required by a final year University Fine-Art student and so undoubtedly, some parts of any Art Resource post may appear far too technical for your needs (skip over those mind boggling parts) and in other parts, it may be too simplistic with respect to your level of knowledge (ditto the skip). The trade-off between these two extremes will mean that Art Resource posts will hopefully be useful in parts to most, but unfortunately may not be satisfying to all!
Introduction
Reactive dyes can be defined as dyes that form covalent bonds with fiber molecules. Covalent bonds are extremely strong and so this ensures that the dyes have an excellent all round fastness. Moreover, the formation of a covalent bond between the dye and fiber makes it possible to use dyes of small molecular size with good solubility. These dyes employ an ideal range of chromophores that can be brighter, fast diffusing, and in the hydrolyzed form, are easily removed in the washing-off process.
Two typical reactive dyes are chlorotriazinyl and vinyl sulfonate. The dye component forms a covalent bond with these groups. The hydroxyl group (-OH) of the cellulosic fiber then reacts with these dyes to form strong covalent bonds with the fiber polymer systems. These reactions occur in the amorphous regions of the fiber polymer systems, since these regions have large voids that can accommodate the dyes.
Note: Reaction occurs in the amorphous region of the cellulosic polymer system.
Courtesy of reference [1].
Note: Rection ccurs in the amorphous regions of the cellulosic polymer system.
Courtesy of reference [1].
The first such dyes, the Procions, were introduced in 1956 by ICI. The reactive dyes were originally developed for direct dyeing of cotton and cellulosic fibers. Their outstanding properties led to dyes that were applicable to wool and silk. In summary, the fibers most readily colored with reactive dyes are the man-made and natural cellulose fibers, synthetic nylon, and natural protein fibers.
Man-Made and Natural Cellulosic Fibers
The dye liquor is prepared in a similar manner to that of direct dyes (see direct dyes in this series). The reactive dye is dissolved in water to which an electrolyte is added to assist the exhaustion of the dye. The textile material is then introduced to the dye liquor and the dye is exhausted onto the fibers.
For the reaction between the dye and the fiber to take place, alkali must be added to the dye liquor. With some reactive dyes, the addition of alkali can be carried out at room temperature. However, with most reactive dyes, the temperature of the dye liquor must be increased, in some cases to the boil, to promote the reaction between the dye molecule and the polymer system of the fiber. It should be noted that reactive dyes have specific temperatures to effect optimum reactions between the dyes and the target fibers. In any case, the addition of the alkali is required for the formation of the covalent bond between the dye molecules and the cellulose fibers.
Nylon Fibers
For nylon fibers the dye liquor is made slightly acidic. Heat is applied to assist the exhaustion of the dye, with the chemical reaction being promoted due to the addition of the alkali. For nylon fibers, the covalent bond is formed between the dye molecule and the terminal amino group of the polyamide fiber polymer.
Protein Fibers
Reactive dyes are applied to protein fibers under slightly acidic conditions. Formation of the covalent bond is between the dye molecule and the fiber polymer at elevated temperatures. Once again the optimum temperature for bond formation is dye specific. The application of heat to the dye liquor serves two purposes: (i) it increases exhaustion of the dye onto the fibers; (ii) it promotes bond formation between the dye molecule and the fiber. Further dye-fiber reaction can be effected by raising the pH of the dye bath to ca. 8-8.5 with ammonia.
Reactive dyes can form covalent bonds with protein fibers with one of the following groups: the -SH group of cystein and the hydroxyl group of the tyrosine amino acid residue. However, most covalent bonds occur with the amino groups since these are more prevalent than the other groups.
Printing With Reactive Dyes
Reactive dyes can be used for printing textile materials such as wool and cellulosic fibers. The printed materials are wet steamed in order to ensure that the dye molecule penetrates the polymer system of the fiber in order to form a covalent bond.
Properties Of Reactive Dyes
General Properties
A bath dyeing of polyamide/cotton using reactive dyes. In the acid phase (top), the polyamide dyes strongly, but the cotton takes up very little dye. In the following alkaline phase (lower) the cotton is dyed to a similar depth of shade.
Effect of Time on Uptake of Reactive Dye.
Percentage figures indicate dye bath concentration.
B: Treated with salt for 60 minutes and dyed with soda for 180 minutes at 50oC.
Note: The much greater dye uptake by mercerized cotton.
Courtesy reference [1].
When selecting dyes for printing, attention must be given to the printing paste stability and staining of the ground during washing-off. Moreover, it is important that the fibers are pre-treated. Woven fabrics must be thoroughly de-sized as reaction with size and azo dye reduction, under hot alkaline conditions in the presence of reducing end-groups – both lead to lower color yield. Mercerization of cotton, or semi-mercerization, is recommended because reactive dyes give full color value on unmercerized cotton. With regenerated cellulose, suitable pre-treatment leads to improved prints.
Alginates, such as sodium alginate, are the only natural thickeners found to be suitable for printing with reactive dyes. All other carbohydrates react with the dyes resulting in low color yields or unsatisfactory fabric handle due to the insolublization of the thickener.
It is most important for prints that the fixation and hydrolysis precede to completeness so that no dye in the reactive form remains to stain the white ground. Reactive dyes can be printed without alkali, using a thickener that gels when an alkaline solution is subsequently applied to bring about fixation.
Light-Fastness
In general, textile materials colored by reactive dyes have very good light-fastness, with a rating of approximately 6. Due to strong covalent bonding between the dye and fiber, these dyes generally have very good resistance to the degrading effect of UV light. However, not all reactive dyes form strong covalent bonds and so some have only fair light-fastness.
Wash-Fastness
As in the case of light-fastness, textile materials colored with reactive dyes generally have good wash-fastness with a rating of ca. 4-5. Under the usual laundering and dry-cleaning conditions, there are few chemicals that can break the covalent bond between the dye and the fiber.
Washing-Off
Textile materials colored by reactive dyes have to be thoroughly rinsed and scoured. Since reactive dyes can react with the -OH group of the water molecule, competition for the dye can occur, producing dye molecules with a poor substantivity for the fiber. The washing off process (involving scouring and rinsing) removes these dye molecules from the fabric. If these dye molecules are not removed, poor rub-fastness may occur.
Effect of Acid
The formation of a covalent bond between the dye molecule and fiber chemical groups occurs under alkaline conditions. The presence of acids may reverse this process. Perspiration and atmospheric pollution are both acid in nature and so may result in some fading of the textile color.
Effect of Chlorine
When reactive dyes were first introduced it was found that some of them were adversely affected by bleaches containing chlorine. Hence swimwear dyed with these reactive dyes would be at risk to fade as well as clothing worn frequently near swimming pools. It is therefore imperative to choose the right reactive dye (that is one that is chlorine resistant) for clothing in these circumstances.
References:
[1] A Fritz and J. Cant, Consumer Textiles, Oxford University Press, Melbourne (1986).
[2] E.P.G. Gohl and L.D. Vilensky, Textile Science, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne (1989).
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